Hr Planning Assignment

Introduction to Planning Function. Human resource planning is the process whereby organizations determine the staffing support they will need to meet business needs and customer demands. There are a variety of considerations that impact this planning, including impending retirements and transitions, the availability of employees with certain skills sets and changes in the environment that may require training for existing employees. Human resource planning is important and ongoing because of both internal and external environmental changes.Internally, businesses are impacted by turnover and retirements. Externally, they are impacted by changes in technology, changes in the economy, and changes in the industry and consumer demand that may require skills that do not currently exist within the company. All of these impacts have an effect on the type and numbers of employees that are needed for the business to remain successful. MM Distributing Agencies. Company Profile MM Distributing A gencies is engaged in product distributing business for five years in a considerably successful manner.The business was started by Mr. Manjula Madurapperuma. Since the companies’ commencement Mr. Manjula Madurapperuma and Mr. Ajith Jayathunga has contributed in a major aspect to the company to be reached the zenith. Their Vision To have distributing agencies in each district. Their Mission We will be the most successful distributing company in the country. MM Distributing Agencies has three distributing agencies, distributing Unilever and Asian Paints products in several geographical areas.And they have about 65 employees under their distributing agencies running out their working capacity. Each and every agency is consistent with a Branch manager, Sales Manager, Stock Keeper and an IT manager. These managers have authority to plan, and recruit and select candidates to their branches or to the particular section. Primarily what happens in these distributing agencies is storin g and distributing the products of Unilever and Asian Paints Companies to shops in those particular areas. Storage and DistributionEach distributing agency has inventories; Unilever and Asian Paints products are directly sent to these inventories and these inventories are controlled and handled under the supervision of Stock keepers and supervisors. And the information about the products stored in these inventories is entered to the main database by computer operators under the supervision of IT managers and Stock keepers. These agencies use Vans and Lorries to distribute products. On all these vehicles there is an outstanding staff whereas a driver, cash collector and 1 or 3 assistants are supposed to work together.And all the day to day activities, information about distributed products are entered to the main database by computer operators under the supervision of IT managers and Stock keepers. And finally the Top Management retrieves required information from the certain databas e. Competitors Competitors of these agencies are other agencies that distribute products of companies like Hemas, CIC, Multilack, Nipolack, and COSWAY etc. Locations of MM Distributing Agencies. Organizational Structure Mr. Manjula Madurapperuma. Mr. Manjula Madurapperuma. Mr. Ajith Jayathunga Mr. Ajith JayathungaAnuradhapura Branch Manager Anuradhapura Branch Manager Avissawella Branch Manager Avissawella Branch Manager Nuwara Eliya Branch Manager Nuwara Eliya Branch Manager Each and every branch is consistent with a Branch manager, Sales Manager, Stock Keeper and an IT manager. Sales Managers, Stock Keepers and IT managers work under the supervision of their particular branch manager. All these managers have authority to plan, and recruit and select candidates to their branches or to the particular section. Only the management positions are filled under the supervision of Mr.Manjula Madurapperuma and Mr. Ajith Jayathunga Current HR Planning Process at MM Distributing Agencies. Eve n though MM Distributing Agencies is engaged in business in a considerably successful manner, the organization does not have a proper planning process. And also it does not have a HR department. HR managers’ duties are done by the each branch manager. Currently the Sales Managers, Stock Keepers and IT managers at each branch have the authority to plan, and recruit and select candidates to their branches or to the particular section under the supervision of their particular branch manager.When there is a position to be filled these managers ask their current employees for help or they go for recruitment at gate option. According to Avissawella branch manager this organization does not have a HR database and a successful planning process, when they have a vacant position they temporarily hire employees for the particular vacant position until they find a suitable person to hire permanently. And the managers admit that it is a costly process. And also they admit that temporarily hired employees cannot be trusted.Both Avissawella and Nuwara Eliya branch managers have faced problems with temporarily hired workers stealing products from the organization and with their bad behavior. These problems are results of not having HR department, a HR database and a proper planning process in the organization. According to Mr. Manjula Madurapperuma, they have tried to establish two distributing agencies at Kurunegala and Kegalle, but both times they have failed to keep those agencies running. It is clear all those failures were occurred because the organization did not have a proper planning process.These weaknesses can affect the organizations’ success. Current Problems of The HR Planning Process at MM Distributing Agencies. * This organization does not have a HR Department. * Organization does not maintain a HR database. * Does not have a proper planning process. * Managers quickly plan solutions for problems like employee turnover, retirements and market losi ng and they fail at implementing those plans. * Branch managers have to work as HR managers too. * Some managerial solutions like temporarily hiring workers cost a huge amount of money and resources to the organization.Recommendations for improvement * Owners of this organization should hire a HR Manager and required other employees and have a HR Department in this organization. * HR Department should maintain a HR database about available employees to inform them and to hire them when there are vacant positions to be filled. * Owners of MM Distributing agencies should meet their managers time to time and make plans for the future of the organization and should implement them carefully. Otherwise the remaining three branches of MM Distributing agencies will eventually fail.

Macy’s Private Label Case Study Essay

There are several private labels and several independent brand labels within Macy’s often amongst each other as a clever marketing technique. However what will attract customers to Macy’s is not the high priced brands but rather their private label brands that often closely mock the established brand style but for a much cheaper price point. People shopping at Macy’s are seeking a deal; otherwise they could shop at Nordstrom’s for a pair of 150-dollar jeans so people often come for the private labels. Macy’s private labels are very clever because of their strategic placing which leads me to say that the private labels are more lucrative to the company than the major brands are. Starting with major brand DKNY which Macy’s sells their mission statement is, â€Å"The mission of the Donna Karan Company, as a design driven company, is to represent the international pulse of New York in the design, marketing and delivery of a complete lifestyle system to a global customer†. DKNY is all about marketing to the New York style consumer who keeps up with East Coast styles and also runs on the more expensive side with a dress averaging around 200 dollars and jeans around 150 dollars. Although the brand is very trendy and made with quality materials one would expect at that price, it simply isn’t really the Macy’s target market. Macy’s consumer expects to shop for deals on the cheaper end as opposed to going to a competitor on the pricey side such as Nordstrom or Bloomingdales. However Macy’s is very strategic in the placing of this brand because it’s generally right next to their private label INC and that proves smart because someone who loves a 300-dollar dress from DKNY can walk over a few feet to INC and find one very similar for much, much less. INC is also urban inspired young contemporary clothing however at a much cheaper price point than the clothing at DKNY. The average price for a dress from the INC department at Macy’s costs from 70-100 dollars. Macy’s is very strategic in merchandising and generally will place INC directly next to brands such as DKNY so that when someone falls in love with that 300 dollar cocktail dress they can ask an associate for something similar and walk a few feet over to the INC department and get the same look for about 200 dollars less. This is smart because Macy’s typical consumer is on the lower end of the financial spectrum and they know people want expensive looks for less money. They use the name brands as bait and lure shoppers in to ultimately buy something from a similar private label, which consumers love because they feel like they are getting a great deal. The INC marketing strategy is very clever and brings in more money than their brand name labels. Overall, INC has the better marketing strategy between the two labels because although people value quality they will take a great deal even if it means sacrificing a bit of quality. The clothing is just as trendy and it’s what ultimately brings in Macy’s target market consumers because they are generally shopping for a great deal. This strategy of using brand names as bait has been the central reason for their success because their goal of maintaining reasonable price points for their customers is prevalent through their private label brands. It’s similar to if you are at the grocery store and want a box of Lucky Charms for 4 dollars then next to it is the same cereal but the store’s private label brand such as Kirkland for only 2 dollars. It’ll taste just a little bit different but not enough to tell the difference off the bat. INC clearly isn’t the same quality of material as a 300-dollar DKNY dress; however at a glance no one can really tell if it’s DKNY or INC it just looks good and this is what matters to consumers at the end of the day. Macy’s should implement more private label brands because these are what make the sales for them. INC wins over DKNY because someone shopping at Macy’s is statistically proven due to finances to be more likely to buy a less expensive private label brand than the pricey brand name item.

Integrated Social Telemarketing

The emphasis on consumer which involves thorough research and coherent evaluation is the thrust of social telemarketing. The foundation of social telemarketing process would be research and evaluation per se. Social telemarketing emerged in the 1970’s as a specialized field of study in marketing. Gerald Zaltman and Philip Kotler were the proponents of social telemarketing. they realized that similar marketing strategies which are used to sell products to consumers can be used in â€Å"selling† ideas and behaviors as well.Kotler suggested that social telemarketing as â€Å"differing from other areas of marketing only with respect to the objectives of the marketer and his organization. † It seeks to influence social behaviors which will benefit its target market and its apparent society as a whole. However, such direct marketing method requires significant funding in order to push through with operations (Weinreich, 2006). Direct Product Marketing Direct product ma rketing pertains to the generation of particular product or service which the consumer wants or needs.In order to produce a product for a consumer, a marketer generates a marketing mix to determine the feasibility of a product in its market and to address the needs of its target market as well. Introducing a new product to the general public refers to the product market. The consumer market is the people you are trying to entice in order to buy the product. A product market is subjective in nature. For instance, you can’t lure a 60 year old in buying the new model of the X-box video game console. Likewise, you can’t sell a hair grower shampoo to a toddler ( Wheelright & Clark, 1992). Email and Voicemail MarketingDue to the fast-paced and sporadic technology, direct marketing has spawned a method called Voicemail Marketing, in which utilizes business voicemail systems and personal voice mailboxes. Such direct marketing method is considered cost effective compared to the costly expenses brought about by Social Telemarketing. Voicemail Marketing simply makes good with an enticing human voice in order to reach out to clients. However, such method has its loopholes due to the proliferation of â€Å"voicespam†, which urged a number of jurisdictions to promulgate laws regarding consumer violations concernig voicemail marketing.

Biography as a writer Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Biography as a writer - Essay Example This research will begin with the statement that childhood is an interesting stage in life because it sets the foundation of what we will be as grown-ups. As a child, the researcher’s passion was reading and writing. Nothing ever passed the researcher’s sight without reading be it a signpost, newspaper, a piece of the old ragged magazine, or a torn piece of paper with writings on it. The researcher’s passion for writing developed as he grew up into a full-blown interest in writing shaped by several experiences. First, the author has grown up admiring his aunt’s writings, which a appear in a weekly magazine. The present research has identified that the researcher’s aunt has a segment where she discusses uncommon health issues affecting the society especially those living in low-income communities, and how they can go about addressing these health problems. This paper illustrates that the author draws inspiration from her passion and determination to expose untold health issues and give a solution to those suffering from such health conditions. Secondly, as the author grew up, they moved from town to town because of the nature of his father’s work. While going through several places the researcher experienced and noted interesting differences in cultures, a way of life among others that captured his attention. This essay discusses that this experience gave him more desire to write about his encounters in different towns.

Conducting Situational Analysis Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Conducting Situational Analysis - Assignment Example It involves understanding the main competitors of the firm and has a detailed analysis on how innovative they are, factors that affect them, how their products are perceive relative to your own and finding the niche markets that are not served. Segmenting the market is useful when a company needs to serve its customers efficiently since it enables pooling of needs of customers and finding the best way to satisfy them. Market segments can be identified based on demographic, psychographic, behavioral or geographical factors. It will therefore be easy for a company to formulate and implement position strategies that will help sell the product to potential customers. Table of Contents Executive summary 2 Table of Contents 3 Background 4 Company products 4 Situation analysis 4 Strength 5 Weakness 5 Opportunity 6 Threats 7 Customers 7 Main competitors 8 Market segments 8 Position strategies for the market segments 9 Reference List 11 Background Richer Sounds was established in 1978 by Juli an Richer at a tender age of 19 years. Before this age, he begun the business at an age of 14 years where he specialized in buying and selling hi-fi separates music system. Under support of Vic Odden- a photographer retailer-made a start of a journey into the most successful retailer in UK. The retail received an award in 2002 being the best British-owned company that provides best working conditions for its workers. The company is operating at 52 stores in secondary high street locations in UK. Since its growth, the company has been able to invest in people schemes and in 2010, it received an award of the Best Retailer Award (Richer Sounds PLC, 2012). Within its operation, the company has kept providing value to its customers and requesting them to fill questionnaires regarding how best they have been served and performance quality of their products. The period 2009 to 2010, the company was able to realize a profit of 5 million pounds which was from a turnover of 160 million pounds . Company products Richer Sounds has become a national retail stores. The current demand in the market required Richer Sounds to provide most of the best latest flat-screen TVs, hi-fi, DVD and electrical appliances. Situation analysis Richer Sounds has placed much investment in product advertisement to reach its customers and increase its market share both in the existing market and its potential markets. The company has been able to make an analysis of its strength weakness, opportunities and strength to assess its position in the market and ability to serve its customers (Thompson and Martin, 2010). Strength Richer Sounds enjoys a long lasting characteristic of providing quality products and services as they keep the fun for their customers. Awarded as the best high street retailer, it remains to b the UK bets value hi-fi, home cinema and TV specialist. This makes them call their brands as the biggest with best prices. The company is organized in a way that it offers expert servic es to its customers. Its strength has been its brands of high quality hi-fi and electrical appliances which the customers have come to accept as best in satisfying their

Computer Games Improves motivation in Elementary School Math Research Paper

Computer Games Improves motivation in Elementary School Math - Research Paper Example According to Azevedo (2005), mathematics or math games are fun activities. They usually encourage motivation, call for deep thinking, require both chance and skills, and provide multiple approaches to problem solving. These games implement certain mathematical strategies and skills by leveraging the natural inclination of the student to play. The games can either be played by an individual, a small or large group; it can be cooperative and/or competitive (Azevedo, 2005). Mathematical games have been proved to have some rewarding impacts to students. Azevedo (2005) argues that games are usually part of after-school activities. Math games can provide the students with suitable contexts for developing both socially and mathematically. In addition, Shin, Sutherland, Norris & Soloway (2012) affirm that students can explore and discuss new strategies with their peers and use these strategies to solve and calculate mathematical problems. Furthermore, math games allow the students to partici pate at a level of their choice and build on their knowledge and understanding. There exists limited empirical literature that supports the hypothesis with most of those advocating for the technique being the game developers and investors, which makes the supporting results relatively biased (Guha & Leonard, 2002). Review of Literature There have been many studies showing how computer games find their place at the elementary school class and students. In order to support the hypothesis that computer games improve motivation in learning mathematics in elementary school, four studies from different sources are considered. The first study examined the practice of computer games in a 4th and 5th graders’ summer school math program. This study focused on the students’ motivation with computer games and learning environment based on such games and on how game-playing improved students’ math learning. This study indicated that using computer games in math is being more simplistic than commercial (Ke, 2008). Moreover, the findings of the study put emphasis on the task of designing appropriate activities that will be connected with computer games to enhance student motivation such as collaborative activities. The limitations occurred in the mentioned study show that this is a case study of one particular set of learning games with a small amount of students who were from the same school although being rather diverse in many characteristics such as gender, socio-economic status, math abilities, etc. There have to be exercised cautions when generalizing the study ?ndings to show the interaction between other types of games and student population of different characteristics. Coming back to our hypothesis, I can say that it is supported. Generally, this study showed that all participants were excited about the games they were offered to play. It means they were motivated to learn math by playing this computer game. The next study by Kebritchi, Hirumi & Bai (2010) examined the effect of 3-D games in the field of mathematics. The crucial questions that this study offered to examine were related to the effects 3-D computer games had on students' mathematics motivation and achievement. Furthermore, the

Social Research Problem and Method Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Social Problem and Method - Research Paper Example And the problem gets further complicated when it is seen that health care prices are rising rapidly, making them unaffordable to most of the masses. Such psychology of the masses can only be uncovered through sociological research. Statistics tell that around 50 million US nationals do not have a health insurance in place, which is around 15% of the whole population. The percentages of people not willing to go for health insurance are growing with time. Moreover, the number of children among those not covered by health insurance is also high, around 18%. This is becoming a grave issue and needs to be researched on, since such a significant portion of the population is unsheltered by no health insurance. The working family of today is that which is earning sufficient enough to survive in today’s age of ever increasing prices. In such an environment, they decide to cut down on costs for health, because it is a double-digit increase in health insurance, in buying medicines, in visiting doctors. If inflation is there, the health care costs are outrunning it by 5 more times, which is a hefty loop. Employers are making this further difficult by removing the shelter of the corporation from employees, who are already working hard for their pays. (Soroka, 1994) It is seen that nowadays, employers are increasingly transferring the cost of health care and health insurance on the already-burdened shoulders of their employees. This increases the amount of deductions from the employees salary, leaving them with less disposable income, and making them negatively inclined towards a health insurance plan. Employers are now making deductions from pay when money is needed for treatment. The research conducted under the division of sociological research can be divided into two types, quantitative methods and qualitative methods. We will be focusing on the quantitative methods, and will be conducting surveys through questionnaires to gauge the

Serving Time in Virginia Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Serving Time in Virginia - Essay Example Sir Edwin Sandys has tried to rebuild the Jamestown in three ways. He attracted the new investors by granting them the head rights for introducing and brining in new tenants. He grabbed the attention of new settlers by introducing lotteries. He tried to make the colony a more peaceful and pleasant place to settle down in by abolishing martial law. Citizens were extended the rights to select two members of the colony as their representatives or spokespersons. Even after the years of struggle and reconstruction, Jamestown was lacking a lot of attention. Citizens were legally enforced to grow corns. Insufficient food, arrival of unprepared settlers, inadequate housing facilities and presence of contaminated wells were becoming the reason of spreading disease. People were more interested in growing tobacco than corn despite food scarcity. This raised the question why Jamestown was still not self-sufficient despite the hard struggle. Another reason could be the transformation of Virginia into a boom country. The settlers discovered new innovative ways to produce more crops of tobacco. They also predicted that they could grow more tobacco crops only if they would have servants or peons taking care of their crops. This idea pinned the concept of slavery for the first time. The tenants gave fifty percent of their crops to plantation owners and worked for four to seven years in their fields. On the other hand, the servants worked with full commi tment and dedication in exchange for food, shelter and their passage from England. As a result, with the help of tenants and new laborers, colonists looked forward to become richer by producing more tobacco. Gradually, tobacco became the economic trademark of the colony. Serving Time in Virginia also raises some questions as to why slavery didn’t grow well during the time when labor was valued greatly. It is worth mentioning that only 5 percent of the Africans

Chanel and the Little Black Dress Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Chanel and the Little Black Dress - Essay Example Clothing by the company is available in both ready to wear formats and haute couture. The firm has about 100 boutiques worldwide, more than 35 of which are in Japan. (Source datamonitor.com- Chanel) Gabrielle "Coco" Chanel was the founder of the company. She started small, opening a milliner's shop in 1909. Chanel opened her first fashion boutique in 1913. Her designs were known for their simplicity and the differentiation from the fashions that existed at that period. She basically used men's fabrics and jerseys and created simpler, comfortable clothes along boxy lines that became very popular. Her most famous perfume, Chanel No 5 debuted in the 1920s and was the first perfume that combined natural substances with chemical aldehyde and was an instant hit. She introduced the "little black dress" in 1926, which became a signature piece and was embraced universally. Alain and Gerard Wertheimer acquired the Chanel Company in 1954.Coco Chanel died in 1971. Ready-to-wear fashions were not introduced until 1978, after Coco Chanel's death. Karl Lagerfeld took over haute couture design in 1983 and ready-to-wear design in 1984. Since then Chanel has grown with acquisitions, newer designers and celebrity endorsements. Michael Porter suggested that for an organization to be successful and obtain a competitive advantage they should follow either one of three generic strategies of Cost leadership, Differentiation or have Niche strategies. Cost Leadership is based on the principle of maintaining lowest costs in terms of manufacturing, marketing and distribution and passing on the benefits to the customer and garnering market share due to offering the lowest price. However this strategy is vulnerable to even slight increases in the cost structure. Having a Niche Strategy means catering to a specified product segment with a specialized product. However, having a very focused marketing mix makes it vulnerable to cope with sudden changes in customer trends. Product differentiation is a strategy that induces the customer to pay a little more for the same product category due to a perceived value by the consumer who is convinced to pay a little more for quality. Chanel markets itself as a premium brand and has an invaluable brand image that has placed the brand in the high echelons of the fashion industry. This has created a prestigious brand value to it and coupled with its famous quilted fabric that doe not rip or tear ea sily, has allowed it to claim expensive price tags for its products. The Appeal of the "Little Black Dress" Chanel operates in the fashion and designer clothing industry. The introduction of the "Little Black Dress" was an extraordinary step for Chanel on the road of success. It still occupies an envious position of being credited as a "wardrobe staple" to this day. The design school advocates simple formulated design, that is simple as it is explicit, arrived at after consideration of all the forces in the environment both internal and external. It also offers a prominence of the "architect" role to the CEO that Chanel played with aplomb when formulating designs. Inspiration derived from the ability to read consumer preferences and developing a product that would cater to

Marketing of Service - Restaurant Chain Essay Example for Free

Marketing of Service Restaurant Chain Essay With the rise in disposable income, dining outside has become a staple part of the modern world. This has been a phenomenon of most of the cities across the continent. The beautiful and pristine continent of Africa is no exception with the spurt of the cities and the settlements from the outside countries. An interesting cradle of development in the continent is the country of South Africa. As the standard of living of most South Africans has risen over the last decade, eating out has become a popular leisure activity. According to Statistics South Africa, restaurants and coffee shops are steadily growing their businesses year on year. Take-away also did well, with businesses growing at an annual rate of around 15%. These increases were in spite of rising interest rates. In recent years, this market has grown and more restaurants have opened – offering a wide variety and an improving quality of food. So, while the market offers plenty of opportunity for a small business, it also demands quality and preferably a special or different offering. We, at Golden Restaurants , in our explorations to roll out across the seas , couldn’t help overlook this burgeoning market. Hence, going ahead with our vision of taking our Flagship Restaurant Brand ‘The Golden Bowl’ to the International Market, we have thought of setting our eyes on the Africa’s , the beautiful South Africa to begin with . Being in the Indian Restaurant Market for quite sometime and having burnt our kitchens to serve clients from different classes , particularly , the rich and the creamy , we would like to conjure our expertise in positioning ourselves as a class apart and an amphitheatre for the Rich and the Super Rich Indian South Africans . This document provides a peek into the South African Indian Market and our strategy to market and promote the experience of Dining in a different way to the Rich Indian populace. Introduction Setting up a restaurant means first deciding what type of food to serve. South Africa has plenty of ‘traditional’ dishes of its own, and has long been a fertile market for cuisines from India, Italy, Greece, France, China and Japan. This exposure has grown in the last decade, and will continue as the country has become home to thousands from other African countries. Knowing our expertise in the Indian Cuisines, we plan to target High-earning individuals or families of the large Indian Diaspora with plenty of disposable income but not much time as well as dual-income family groups and the Flux of Indian Tourists to the country. Though there are a sizeable number of Indian Restaurants, around 40, located in the Indian strongholds like Durban, Johannesburg, Cape Town, Pretoria catering to the different strata of the diaspora, we intend to focus ourselves on the niche rich segment and provide an enriching experience with differentiated Service Value Addition. We plan to start with Johannesburg, as our strategic location , it being a hotspot of Indian settlement and also one of the wealtiest cities of the country . We would like to offer our guests a dining experience like no other. A unique, interactive dining experience creating memorable moments with family and friends or the corporate honchos. From the time the first piece of bread is dipped and the last piece of dessert is savored, youll be graced with the time to discover new things about people you thought you knew. And, those youre getting to know. The emphasis would be on the first impressions and the power of contrast, simplified but exhaustive dining, an engagement of the senses and a choreographed ambience. The pick of the cuisines of the four corners of India would be on offer and the Indian exotic feel would be the main forte. Indian Diaspora in South Africa The history of the Indian diaspora in South Africa is a fascinating saga of almost a hundred forty years. Indian South Africans are people of Indian descent living in South Africa and mostly live in and around the city of Durban, making it the largest Indian city outside India. Many Indians in South Africa are descendents of migrants from colonial India (South Asia) during late 19th-century through early 20th-century. At other times Indians were subsumed in the broader geographical category Asians, including persons originating in present-day Iran and parts of the small Chinese community. The modern South African Indian community is largely descended from Indians who arrived in South Africa from 1860 onwards. The first 342 of these came on board the Truro from Madras, followed by the Belvedere from Calcutta. They were transported as ndentured laborers to work on the sugarcane plantations of Natal Colony, and, in total, approximately 150,000 Indians arrived as indentured laborers over a period of 5 decades, later also as indentured coal miners and railway construction workers. The indentured laborers tended to speak Tamil, Telugu and Hindi, and the majority were Hindu with Christians and Muslims among them. The remaining Indian immigration was from passenger Indians, comprising traders, and others who migrated to South Africa shortly after the indentured labourers, paid for their own fares and travelled as British Subjects. These immigrant Indians who became traders were from varying religious backgrounds, some being Hindu and some being Muslims from Gujarat (including Memons and Surtis), later joined by Kokanis, and Urdu speakers from Uttar Pradesh. . There was also a significant number of Gujarati Hindus in this group. Indian traders were sometimes referred to as Arab traders because of their dress, as large numbers of them were Muslim. Passenger Indians, who initially operated in Durban, expanded inland, to the South African Republic (Transvaal), establishing communities in settlements on the main road between Johannesburg and Durban. Natals Indian traders rapidly displaced small white shop owners in trade with other Indians, and with black Africans, causing resentment among white businesses. | Population, Regional Linguistic Distribution The South African Indian origin community currently numbers around 1. 15 million and constitutes about 2. 5% of South Africa’s total population of 45. 45 million. About 80% of the Indian community lives in the province of KwaZulu-Natal, about 15% in the Gauteng (previously Transvaal) area and the remaining 5% in the Cape Town area. In KwaZulu-Natal, the major concentration of the Indian population is in Durban. The largest concentrations of Indian settlement are at Chatsworth, Phoenix, Tongaat and Stanger in the Durban Coastal area, which covers approximately 500,000 of the Indian origin community. Pietermaritzburg – noted for its link with Mahatma Gandhi has a community of approximately 200,000. Smaller inland towns in KwaZulu Natal such as Ladysmith, Newcastle, Dundee and Glencoe make up the bulk of the remaining Indian population. In the Gauteng area, the Indian community is largely concentrated around Lenasia outside Johannesburg and Laudium and other suburbs outside Pretoria. There are also smaller groups in towns in the Eastern Cape and other provinces. Settlement of Indian origin people in a particular area, as with other South African peoples, came about as a result of the Group Areas Act that forced racial division into particular designated areas. According to the figures provided by the Department of Education and Culture, in the Province of KwaZulu-Natal, the linguistic break-up of the Indian community is as follows: Tamil 51%, Hindi 30%, Gujarati 7%, Telugu 6%, Urdu 5% and others 1%. Starting a restaurant in South Africa Product is a key element in the overall market offering. Marketing-mix planning begins with formulating an offering that brings value to target customers. This offering becomes the basis upon which the company builds profitable relationships with customers. A company’s market offering often includes both tangible goods and services. Each component can be a minor or a major part of the total offer. At one extreme, the offer may consist of a pure tangible good, such as soap. Toothpaste, or salt—no services accompanying the product. At the other extreme are pure services, for which the offer consists primarily of a service. Examples include a doctor’s exam or financial services. Between these two extremes, however, many goods-and-services combinations are possible, the best examples is â€Å"Restaurant†. A restaurant is an ideal case of a product meets services story and the success of the greater concept as a whole depends on the combined successes or excellence of the entire gamut of offerings right from the food served to the services rendered to the ambience offered. We are not just offering our core Product with an elite Service but we blend it with a rich dining experience, one that would linger on for quite sometime. Now that we have identified the country, learnt about the population and have good statistical information which support the opening of an Indian Restaurant in South Africa, let’s put on the Thinking Hat and do some Brainstorming like a marketers. We have the vast South African Market which is more or less a mixed kind of market with heterogeneous culture. So, at first we need to identify our target market and position our pro-ser-exp (product served in a unique manner to give an experience of lifetime) by the process of S. T. P (i. e. Segmenting, Targeting and Positioning)

Labov’s Model of Narrative Analysis

Labov’s Model of Narrative Analysis William Labov’s model of narrative analysis differs from some of the earlier approaches in that his method focuses on oral narrative instead of written text. Earlier linguists, such as Ferdinand de Saussure, believed in a structural approach. This meant that language had to be approached as a fixed, clearly defined set of symbols, which furthermore had to be studied in isolation. However, later linguists, among them Uriel Weinrich, Labov’s mentor, believed that the structural approach failed to assist us in understanding â€Å"the transition of a language from state to state† (Labov 1972:xv). Labov’s focus has been to study language as it is spoken, as a fluid and constantly changing dynamic. Most of Labov’s model of narrative analysis is based on his belief that â€Å"one cannot understand the development of a language change apart from the social life of the community in which it occurs† (1972:3). He feels strongly that observing and recording sound changes is not enough to understand the process of change—that one has to view that change within the context of the community in which it is being made, as it is being made. Using this theory, he carefully chose communities where he felt he could do this most effectively. He conducted the first of several in-depth studies in Martha’s Vineyard, a small, closed island community located in Dukes County, Massachusetts. Labov saw Martha’s Vineyard as an ideal study site primarily because it was very self-contained. In addition, it was physically isolated, located three miles from the mainland. For his next series of studies, Labov selected parts of New York City. One particular area he focused on in the New York City study focused on Black English as it was used in certain parts of the city, specifically Harlem. Although Harlem did not have geographical distance from New York the way Martha’s Vineyard did from Massachusetts, racial and socioeconomic boundaries made it an isolated community in its own way. The main points of Labov’s model were first published in 1972 in an essay entitled â€Å"The Transformation of Experience in Narrative Syntax.† In this essay Labov introduces and explains what he sees as the six main parts of a narrative. He discusses each part as a tool which we can use to analyze narrative patterns, to help recognize recurring themes and ideas. The six main parts of Labov’s model are: abstract; orientation; complicating action; evaluation; resolution; and coda. It is not necessary that all six of these be present in every narrative; for example, some narratives will not have an abstract, while others may not have a coda. Additionally, these components need not appear in a specific order, and each may be present in a variety of ways—these factors are also considered in the final analysis. Labov uses the term â€Å"abstract† to refer to the introductory part of the narrative. This may be, literally, an â€Å"abstract,† or a brief summary of the events; or it may be simply a line or two that will spark the reader’s interest. The role of the abstract is to attract the listener’s interest, and to get the listener to want to hear the rest of the story. The next stage is called â€Å"orientation.† During this phase the speaker gives the listener information about the setting of the story. For example, the speaker will introduce and describe the people or characters who will interact in the story, as well the setting (the place the action occurs) and the time frame. For the story to be valid and understandable to the reader, it is essential that he or she be informed of the time and place in which the narrative unfolds. Following orientation is the â€Å"complicating action.† This refers to the actual events of the narrative, the occurrences that move it ahead. Complicating actions may be physical actions. They may be also be statements spoken aloud, or they may be thought acts â€Å"Evaluation† refers to the point, or reason, the narrative is being told, and it can be done in a number of ways. â€Å"Evaluations† may be specifically and clearly stated, or they may be implied. â€Å"Internal† evaluations are those revealed while the story is taking place, while â€Å"external† evaluations take place outside the immediate action of the story (for example, after the story is told). Another evaluation technique is the â€Å"embedded evaluation.† This can be an explanation offered by one of the people in the story, or by the storyteller directly. In addition, it may also be an event in the story. Following this is what Labov calls the â€Å"result† or â€Å"resolution†: this, basically, is the conclusion. At this point the narrator indicates that the story has come to a close, that a final action has occurred. Finally, there may be a â€Å"coda.† By â€Å"coda† Labov means that the narrator points out the relevance of the story by connecting it with every-day life, or with other events or actions that fall outside the story frame. The coda does not always have to be present. It may also be present without being explicitly stated. One of the issues to be discussed concerning Labov’s model for narrative analysis is the method of data collection, since â€Å"the means used to gather the data interfere with the data to be gathered† (Labov 1972:43). The interview itself may be considered â€Å"public speech.† However, even within this realm, there are other conditions to be considered. For example, does the relationship of the interviewer to the interviewee affect the latter’s speech patterns? Does the use of a recording device affect the interviewee’s choice of words, perhaps make word selection more formal than it ordinarily would be? One way of monitoring this is to compare the subject’s speech patterns during the course of the interview with his or her speech patterns outside the interview setting. For example, the interviewer could also observe the subject while he or she is relaxed with peers or family members in a less formal setting. Labov’s model has strongly influenced language studies since its introduction in 1972, and it continues to be influential in additional settings. With the widespread growth of the internet, we now have a new, informal sort of communication. Linguist Michael Toolan suggests that Labov’s model is a useful tool in the analysis of internet writing. Internet writing is often less formal than academic or other types of writing, but more structured than spoken language. Thus, Labov’s model remains effective today. As language itself continues to grow and change, it is quite probable that Labov’s model will grow to accommodate that change, and to continue to be a useful tool in years to come. REFERENCES Labov, William (1972) Socioloinguistic Patterns. Philadelphia: University of  Pennsylvania Press. Toolan, Michael (1988) Narrative: A Critical Linguistic Introduction London:  Routledge..

Monolog For Bassoon By Isang Yun Music Essay

Monolog For Bassoon By Isang Yun Music Essay Isang Yun was a composer with Korean ethnicity who is well known in the music world especially in Europe as he spent a major portion of his life in Germany and died there too. In his initial years of composing, his compositions were not well known in Korea due to the political issues surrounding the East Berlin Event. Inferring from his biography, it seemed that he wished to see Korea as a unified nation. Between the period of 1956 to 1995, Isang Yun composed music in Germany and other European countries. He also composed vast amount of pieces and his works were written in almost every genre, such as instrumental sonatas, operas, symphonies, and cantatas. While his works have been largely performed and studied in Europe, Japan, and even North Korea, South Korean officials have thoroughly prohibited his music and consider the composer dangerous politically. Isang Yun often visited North Korea without permission from the South as North Korea supported scholarships and living expenses for him. However, after a change of regime in 1982, the national symphony orchestra of South Korea first introduced his works in South Korea. From this time, Yuns music began to be studied by musicians in the South. This paper will discuss in musical theoretical detail one of his works, Monolog for bassoon His well composed work, Monolog for Bassoon was composed in 1983, this was the mid period of Yuns well accomplished compositional career. During this stage of his life, he had already achieved mastery over the formal techniques of the European avant-garde and had moved more into composing within a more free atonal style. The Monolog for bassoon is quintessential of Yuns typical mature style wherein he fusions the use of free atonality with elements from his ethnic Korean lineage. The Monolog for bassoon, which has so far been recorded by at least five prominent bassoonists, is a concrete testament to Yuns growing prominence as a 20th century composer. It shows Yuns unique compositional angle which uniquely combines ethnic Korean inspirations in a work for bassoon, which is a distinctly Western instrument. The Monolog for bassoon also warrants a close study, as it is his only solo work for bassoon, and is an emerging standard of 20th century avant-garde bassoon repertoire. During his initial years into composing, Yun was fond of and got acquainted with European music and constantly found different sought out ways to learn more about European music history, style, and compositional methods. Because of his inclination towards western music more so European music, he also developed inspiration in the musical traditions of his home country, Korea. It was only after his journey to Europe that Yun began to foster and incorporate traditional Korean elements into his music. Yun himself admitted this truth through the following quote: When I was in Korea, I enjoyed and listened to our rich Korean musical traditions for entertainment. But I realized the hidden treasures of Korean traditional music for the first time only after I came to Europe. Keith Howard notes that prior to Yuns journey to Europe, his works show no attempt to incorporate elements from Korean traditional music. Yun later removed all works from circulation that he had written prior to his study in Europe as he felt they were not representative of his mature compositional voice. Whilst presenting into radio broadcasts in Freiburg in 1960 on the subject of traditional East Asian music, he began to develop his distinct and unique composing style. Yun also spent a major part of his time to study traditional East Asian music so he could play them in his broadcasts. Due to this research Yun was inspired to compose Loyang, a beautifully composed work that incorporated the mood of ancient court music, the sounds of traditional Korean instruments, as well as the principles of Taoism. But Yuns method of incorporating these elements was not literal in the least. Jeongmee Kim explains: He was not interested in quoting folk tunes, nor borrowing traditional Asian instruments, nor composing nostalgic song lyrics. Yuns Korean musical heritage is expressed through more abstract, philosophical, and internalized use of ethnic materials, in particular Hauptton/Hauptklang technique. He relied on the use of Korean classical musical forms and Asian philosophy to compete with the equivalent in Europe. These shape and propel the sounds and structure of his works, while the Western musical heritage and its instruments provide the physical means to articulate Yuns complex sound world. Quite centric to Yuns music can be found a Korean view of sound. While Western ears are accustomed to hearing a melodic figure accompanied by harmonic progression, Eastern music relies heavily on the role of an individual or central tone. The tone itself is celebrated; adorned with a huge variety of ornaments. These ornaments are not intended to encompass the central tone within a melody, rather they are an essential part of how the tone is able to express itself. The concept of the central tone is prevalent in many Asian countries and spans various genres of Asian music. Yun describes this phenomenon in a speech he gave at a conference in Berlin: While in European music the concept of form plays a decisive part, and notes become significant only when a whole group of them are related horizontally as melody or vertically as harmony, the thousand-year-old tradition of Eastern Asiatic music places the single note, the constructive element, in the foreground. In European music only a series of notes comes to life, so that the individual tone can be relatively abstract, but with us the single tone is alive in its own right. Our notes can be compared to brush strokes as opposed to pencil lines. From beginning to end each note is subject to transformations; it is decked out with embellishments, grace notes, fluctuations, glissandi, and dynamic changes; above all, the natural vibration of each note is consciously employed by a means of expression. A notes changes in pitch are regarded less as intervals forming a melody than as an ornamental function and part of the range of expression of one and the same note. This method of treating individual notes sets my music apart from other contemporary works. It gives it an unmistakably Asiatic color, which is evident even to the untrained listener. Keith Howard discusses some meaningful reasons which explain the reason for Korean music being structured in that way. The initial part is the ironic yet well complementing relationship between yin and yang. After which is the concept of never-ending movement. Nature is held in high regard in the east asian culture more so with the continuous flow of elements like water, air etc. Now from an abstract or musical view, the flow of sound is thought to be continuous as well. Music exists before sound begins, and continues after sound ends. This is one of the reasons why Yun compares the single tone to brush strokes as opposed to pencil lines. A pencil line has a definite beginning and ending, as well as a uniform shape and consistency throughout. But in a brush stroke it is hard to determine where the actual beginning and ending occur. Although to the naked eyes it may show as a single line, it can show different views in a myriad of ways and also have contrasting qualities within each u nique stroke, which more precisely mimics the flow of nature. He goes on more to explain his view of continuous flow in an interview with Bruce Duffie where he quotes: My music doesnt have a beginning or an end. You could combine elements from one piece into another piece very wellà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. Music flows in the cosmos and I have an antenna which is able to cut out a piece of the stream. The part which Ive cut out is organized and formed through my own thought and body processes, and I commit it to paper. Thats why my music is always continuous like the clouds that are always the same but are never alike one to another. Howard also suggests that the physical structure and musical capabilities of traditional Korean instruments have had a profound impact on the Korean concept of tone. While each instrument is unique in tone and structure, they all are extremely flexible in terms of pitch. Many instruments are so flexible that it can be difficult to produce a steady tone. This is directly linked to the Korean musical ideal of sound being embellished and ever changing. As Yun mainly did composing in the sphere of Western art music, wherein a comprehensive understanding of Korean ornamentation is not mandatory, he does not leave the art of ornamentation up to the performer. He makes it a point to word minute details of the ornamentation, few of which exist within the framework of Western notation, others of which he must create new symbols and explanations for, as they are not part of the conventional vocabulary for Western musicians. This was a challenging process for Yun because in his thoughts he held a meticulously detailed vision of what the ornamentation should sound like. On this part he was quoted as, I wrote down the playing techniques for instrumentalists as they are used in Korea on the old instruments, thus as a very accurate vibrato and many sorts of glissando. In Korea there are of course about thirty kinds of glissando. To truly emulate the sounds of traditional Korean instruments, Yun had to create new, and often very difficult, tech niques for the performers. Isang Yuns Monolog for bassoon was mainly composed between the years 1983 to 1984, however the actual roots of this work had begun some years prior along with his other work Clarinet Concerto. The Clarinet Concerto was composed by Yun in the year 1981 especially for Swiss clarinetist Eduard Brunner, who was the principal clarinetist of Munichs Bavarian Radio Symphony Orchestra for about 30 years. He premiered the work in Munich on January 29, 1982. Certain points which were notable about the Clarinet Concerto is the usage of bass clarinet instead of clarinet because of the solo voice during the middle movement. In the following year, Yun removed the solo line from the second movement and then used it as the structural basis for a solo bass clarinet work. The resulting composition of this which was written for Dutch bass clarinet virtuoso Harry Sparnaay, became Yuns Monolog for bass clarinet and was then premiered on April 9, 1983. Expecting some changes and more likely to accommodate range, Yun also published a version of the same work for bassoon. Yun was quoted in an interview with Bruce Duffie in 1987 that he composed strictly by commission, and his scores typically included a dedication to the commissioner. However, the Monolog for bassoon contains no such dedication and it is unknown whether it was created for a particular individual. It was premiered on February 3, 1985 by French bassoonist Alexandre Ouzounoff. Precedent for Yuns solo works being performed on other instruments had been set several years prior with Piri, a composition for solo oboe. Piri was composed in 1971 for oboist Georg Meerwin, which immediately gained quick popularity. Before long, musicians of other instruments took notice of Piri and began to perform it. Clarinetists specifically performed and recorded Piri, which also including Eduard Brunner. Wolfgang Sparrer was quoted on his observation about about Piri as: Although it was originally written for oboe, the composer has allowed interpretations for other instruments. Due to its high demands regarding playing technique and successful balance between construction and expression, Piri achieved so much popularity within only a few years that it was often chosen as a compulsory piece in music competitions. Due to this well spread acceptance and versatility of Piri, Yun may have anticipated the idea of creating an alternate edition of Monolog for bass clarinet for bassoon. Since there are distinct differences in range, key, and clef notation between the two instruments, publishing a new version of the work for bassoon was necessary to encourage performances. As this analysis specifically addresses the Monolog for bassoon, an in-depth discussion of Yuns Monolog for bass clarinet will not be included with the exception of highlighting the differences between the bassoon and bass clarinet versions as explained below. In a discussion of his compositional process, Yun was quoted by Luise Rinser: I do not exhaust my possibilities in any one piece. There always remains something unsolved in form. I make that the starting point of another work. I must always take something new as a challenge. If someday no more new ideas come up, I would stop composing. This statement not just shows the well synergized and critical parts in Yuns works, but also provides an answer for his use of the middle movement of the Clarinet Concerto as the basis for an expanded work that would eventually become the Monolog for bassoon. The Monolog for bassoon well showcases Yuns unique compositional fusion of Eastern and Western elements. Although this work at an initial look seems like a general late twentieth century avant-garde work for bassoon utilizing extended techniques within a non-tonal compositional context, Yuns compositional approach looks to specifically convey traditional Korean philosophies, sound ideals, and instrumental techniques. Understanding his compositional method is a key to the performers comprehension of the work. If only viewed with a Western outlook analysis of this work, there is a possibility to overlook critical elements in the work like main tone versus ornament, or treatment of the ornaments themselves, while making other analytical associations which he did not intend, such as relying on motivic development and harmonic motion to propel the music rather than melodic growth. Just with all musical genres, it is more feasible to have a comprehensive understanding of the main composers musical perspective. This understanding also holds true for music of the twentieth-century than it is for earlier periods, particularly as modern musical influences become more and more diverse and reach beyond the bounds of traditional Western classical music. Bibliography / Discography Hur, Dae-Sik. A Combination of Asian Language with Foundations of Western Music: An Analysis of Isang Yuns Salomo for Flute Solo or Alto Flute Solo. PhD diss., University of North Texas, 2005. Kim, Jeongmee. Musical Syncretism in Isang Yuns Gasa. In Locating East Asia in Western Art Music, edited by Yayoi Uno Everett and Frederick Lau, 168-192. Middletown, Conn: Wesleyan University Press, 2004. Choi, Yulee. The Problem of Musical Style: Analysis of Selected Instrumental Music of the Korean-Born Composer Isang Yun. Ph.D. diss., New York University, 1992. Helicon, David Currnings, ed. Yun, Isang. Random House Encyclopedia Dictionary of Classical Music. Publishing Ltd., Oxford, 1997. 749. . . Yun, Isang. In Contemporary Composers. Edited by Brian Morton and Pamela Collins. New York: St James Press, 1992. Kim, Chul-Hwa. The Musical Ideology and Style of Isang Yun, As Reflected in His Concerto for Violoncello and Orchestra (1975/76). Ph.D. diss., University of Illinois at Urbana- Champaign, 1997. Kim, Doosook. A Recording and an Analytical Overview of Two Violin Works by Isang Yun. Ph.D. diss., Arizona State University, 1996. Kim, Jeongmee. The Diaporic Composer: The Fusion of Korean and German Musical Cultures in the work of Isang Yun. Ph.D. diss., University of California, 1999. Kim, Yongwan. Yun Isang Yun Ku. Seoul: Hankuk Yesul Jonghap Hakgou Press, 2001. Kunz, H. Yun, Isang. In The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians Vol. 27. Edited by Stanley Sadie. London: Macmillan, Publishers, 2001. 696-697. Musique pour Basson et Piano Vol.2 Performer: Dag Jensen, Midori Kitagawa Composer: Paul Hindemith, Olav Berg, Othmar Schoeck, Otmar Nussio, Isang Yun, et al. Audio CD (March 23, 1999) Label: MDG Records

Essays --

Would technology still be as common as it is today even if they function differently? Back in the 1970s, the idea of having a personal computer is far fetch. Computers back then are not as easy to use like those that we have today. Steve Jobs has a great distribution to make computer to be easier to access. During 1977, Steve Jobs changed the way the world thinks about personal computer after him and his friend released a computer called the Apple II, the first computer that was factory built, inexpensive and easy to use (Lam, 2011, Para.19). The Apple Company was originally started with Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak. Jobs and Wozniak bonded over their interests in computers and also their passion for music (Isaacson, 2011, Pg.43). Despite both of them being college dropouts, Jobs and Wozniak started Apple on their own only with the money that they raised from selling things that they owned (Isaacson, Pg.91). Sometime later, Jobs and Wozniak had fallout, Wozniak ended up leaving the company and Jobs got removed from his own company. Even with all of the odds, Jobs never gave up; he created a new computer company called NeXT, which was bought by Apple because the company is about to go bankrupt. Steve Jobs was voted to become the permanent CEO. Jobs completely changed the way Apple works; he shut down all the unimportant projects and focused mainly on computer. He gave Apple the cure for its bankruptcy problem by inventing ingenious devices that changed our culture. He forever altered the language of computer interface. Along the way, he built Apple up into one of the most valuable corporations in the world. Steve Jobs has a great influence over the foundation of the Apple Company and the technology that we have today. Steve J... ... as exciting and lively as ever. All of those in attendance are always awestruck by Jobs enthusiasm and charisma. He also has a great talent to influence the people that he speak to, in his 2005 Stanford Commencement Speech, Jobs used his life experiences to teach the college graduate about life. He taught them that they should pursue their dreams, to see opportunities in life’s setbacks, he asked them to live everyday as if it’s their last day and he also told them to do what they love. Steve Jobs did not just influenced people’s lives by being a good role model; he also changed many people’s lives. He helped millions of people by revolutionizing the whole technology world thus making millions of business easier to manage. He also made Apple into a whole new company that provides jobs for thousands of people around the world.

Character Development in Chapter Two of Their Eyes Were Watching God :: Their Eyes Were Watching God Essays

Character Development in Chapter Two of Their Eyes Were Watching God   Ã‚  Ã‚   In Zora Neale Hurston's novel, Their Eyes Were Watching God the character of Nanny dies in the beginning of Janie's adventures, but her influence is felt throughout the book. In this way, she is a minor character with effects on the major character. This makes Nanny important. The reader learns a lot about Nanny in last paragraph of chapter two, mainly from her dialogue, including unique syntax and diction, and imagery. "And, Janie, maybe it wasn't much, but Ah done de best Ah kin by you. Ah raked and scraped and bought dis lil piece uh land so you wouldn't have to stay in de white folks' yard and tuck yo' head befo' other chillun at school. Dat was all right when you was little. But when you got big enough to understand things, Ah wanted you to look upon yo'self. Ah don't want yo' feathers always crumpled by folks throwin' up things in yo' face. And ah can't die easy thinkin' maybe de menfolks white or black is makin' a spit cup outa you: Have some sympathy fuh me. Put down easy, Janie, Ah'm a cracked plate."   Last Paragraph in Chapter 2    Nanny's dialogue is indicative of her time and place, which allows a fuller picture of her aside from physical descriptions. The reader can tell that Nanny is a black woman from the South, just by her syntax. Examples include the "Ah done de best Ah kin by you," which is not the way a white person from the North would phrase this statement. In the next sentence, this image of Nanny is upheld by her construction, "Ah raked and scraped and bought. . ." which is not the simplest or most common way of phrasing this statement. The diction used in these regional constructions further supports Nanny's image. Examples of this include "Ah done" instead of "I've done," "dis lil piece uh land,"instead of "this little piece of land," or "yo'" replacing "your." In Nanny's talk with Janie, she includes much imagery to support her statements. Examples include, "Ah don't want yo' feathers always crumpled.. .," Ah can't die easy thinkin' maybe de menfolks. . . makin' a spit cup outa you," and"Ah'm a cracked plate."This imagery is indicative of an upbringing involving many stories, often involving hyperbole. It is a figurative style of speech common in this culture, one which carries on today in the form of such phenomena as "dozens" and "lying sessions. Character Development in Chapter Two of Their Eyes Were Watching God :: Their Eyes Were Watching God Essays Character Development in Chapter Two of Their Eyes Were Watching God   Ã‚  Ã‚   In Zora Neale Hurston's novel, Their Eyes Were Watching God the character of Nanny dies in the beginning of Janie's adventures, but her influence is felt throughout the book. In this way, she is a minor character with effects on the major character. This makes Nanny important. The reader learns a lot about Nanny in last paragraph of chapter two, mainly from her dialogue, including unique syntax and diction, and imagery. "And, Janie, maybe it wasn't much, but Ah done de best Ah kin by you. Ah raked and scraped and bought dis lil piece uh land so you wouldn't have to stay in de white folks' yard and tuck yo' head befo' other chillun at school. Dat was all right when you was little. But when you got big enough to understand things, Ah wanted you to look upon yo'self. Ah don't want yo' feathers always crumpled by folks throwin' up things in yo' face. And ah can't die easy thinkin' maybe de menfolks white or black is makin' a spit cup outa you: Have some sympathy fuh me. Put down easy, Janie, Ah'm a cracked plate."   Last Paragraph in Chapter 2    Nanny's dialogue is indicative of her time and place, which allows a fuller picture of her aside from physical descriptions. The reader can tell that Nanny is a black woman from the South, just by her syntax. Examples include the "Ah done de best Ah kin by you," which is not the way a white person from the North would phrase this statement. In the next sentence, this image of Nanny is upheld by her construction, "Ah raked and scraped and bought. . ." which is not the simplest or most common way of phrasing this statement. The diction used in these regional constructions further supports Nanny's image. Examples of this include "Ah done" instead of "I've done," "dis lil piece uh land,"instead of "this little piece of land," or "yo'" replacing "your." In Nanny's talk with Janie, she includes much imagery to support her statements. Examples include, "Ah don't want yo' feathers always crumpled.. .," Ah can't die easy thinkin' maybe de menfolks. . . makin' a spit cup outa you," and"Ah'm a cracked plate."This imagery is indicative of an upbringing involving many stories, often involving hyperbole. It is a figurative style of speech common in this culture, one which carries on today in the form of such phenomena as "dozens" and "lying sessions.

Plans for Recruitment and Retention

There are many major challenges facing the nursing shortage environment today. One of those challenges includes the facility recruitment of registered nurses and then the facility retention of the registered nurses that they have recruited. Factors to consider would be as to why a registered nurse chose to accept a particular job and will they choose to stay at the facility after being given an employment opportunity. A facility’s reputation, union status, autonomy and salary are among some of the factors that influence recruitment.Factors that influence retention includes the inclusion in decision making, practice autonomy, workers, work load, management’s respect of the workers, and shifts worked. It is expensive for any facility to recruit a registered nurse. According to a recent study by CB Jones, it costs between $62,100 and $67,100 to replace one registered nurse. (Jones, 2005) The cost of human turnover and subsequent recruiting often is not discussed. When ther e is a nurse vacancy, that particular nurses’ workload has to be incorporated into the workload of another nurse. The nurse or nurses that take on the workload are not necessarily going to be paid more.It’s a grin and bear it type of situation where everyone has to work together as a team. When a new nurse has finally been recruited, they have to go through an extensive orientation for the culture of the particular unit they are assigned to. Then retention comes into place. Now we have the new nurse in place, how do we go about keeping her? Retention can also be a major challenge for a facility. So how do we recruit and retain these nursing staffs? Define the Problem It has been projected that the U. S. will experience an intensified shortage of registered nurses as the baby boomers age and the need for health care grows.(AACN, 2012) To add intensity to the problem, the nursing schools are struggling with recruiting students to meet the demand for this new healthcare r eform that arising. This has become a major healthcare concern. Between 2009 and 2030, it is projected that the shortage of nurses will spread across the country most intensely in the South and the West according to the â€Å"United States Registered Nurse Workforce Report Card and Shortage Forecast. † (AJMQ 2012) The American Association of Colleges of Nursing (AACN) is currently working with nursing organizations, policy makers, the media, and various schools to address this growing concern.Literature Review The fact is that there is definitely a shortage of nurses, and the numbers are going to grow in the years forthcoming. The statistics on the shortage are constantly changing. The Bureau of Labor Statistics states that registered nurses make up approximately 2. 6 million of the U. S. jobs. These jobs are in arenas such as hospitals, doctor’s offices, home health services, nursing care facilities, employment services, and government and social assistance agencies/e ducational services. That number is expected to grow to approximately 3. 2 million by the year 2018.In the year 2010, the United States faced a shortage of about 275,000 nurses. It is projected that by 2015 that number will have grown to approximately 500,ooo, and 800,000 by 2020. As the population gets older, more nurses are expected to retire. There are many reasons given for the shortage of nurses ranging from the demographics of the population, the employment patterns of women, nursing work, and the health care system itself. Some of those reasons include: Increased demand as the population ages. Eighteen percent growth overall and 54 percent growth overall for those with more health care needs. Other career options.There is a range of other career opportunities that are being considered, especially for those born after the 1950s. Work environment and workload. Hospitals have reduced their staffing and mandatory overtime policies have been implemented for the registered nurses t o ensure coverage for the unexpected increase of patients. Image. The media diverts the attention of the young adults who may be interested in nursing by focusing on the challenges that nurse’s face rather than the aspects of the career that are rewarding. Problem Analysis With a shortage of nurses, the care and safety of patients may becomecompromised. The nurses themselves may be having feelings of dissatisfaction, overwhelm and distress. Nurses who may become overwhelmed with the high number of patients may become frustrated and burnt out. And inadequate staff of nurses may lead to a negative impact on the patient’s outcome. The quality of care the patients may receive in facilities with low staffing may be poor. There are a number of factors that contribute to the impact of the nursing shortage. Low nursing school enrollment. The projected demand for nursing services is not being met with the low enrollment.In 2011, the AACN reported there was only a 5. 1% increase in enrollment in entry-level nursing programs. Faculty shortage in nursing schools. With not enough faculty teaching in the nursing schools, it restricts the number of program enrollments. Nursing schools turned away 75,587 qualified applicants from their baccalaureate and graduate programs in 2011 because of insufficient staffing, classroom space, budget constraints, clinical sites and clinical preceptors according to a report issued by the AACN. The average age of nurses is climbing. The average age of nurses reported in 2012 was 44. 5 years of age.The largest segment of the nursing workforce is expected to be nurses in their 50s. Changing demographics. As the baby boomers get older, their health care needs are expanding, which will impact the future demand for more nurses. Elevated stress levels. With the insufficient staffing, the current nurses are overwhelmed with responsibilities, therefore, resulting in high stress levels, poor job satisfaction, and no motivation to stay on the job. This also limits the amount of time that the nurses can spend with the patients and impacts the quality of care given to the patients. Possible SolutionsEncouragement is needed for the deployment and development of the nursing personnel with the appropriate skills. Regardless of the pressures that relate to the short-term demand for nursing services, there must be ongoing long-term workforce planning by the policy makers, public and the profession. Measures must be put in place to reverse these trends; otherwise, we are in danger of experiencing some serious health care system breakdowns. It is costly to develop strategies for recruiting and retaining nurse personnel. The Tri-Council members of The American Association of Colleges of Nursing (AACN), The American Nurses Association (ANA), TheAmerican Organization of Nurse Executives (AONE), and The National League for Nursing (NLN) suggested the following recommendations: Education Develop career progression initiatives to accelerate the nursing graduates through their studies; Identify available options beyond entry-level such as administrator, researcher or faculty; Establish a system of education and practice to promote more compensation in the community of health care; Assist health care employers in creating and sustaining staff development programs and continuous growth; Use counselors, schools, and youth organizations to reach out to the youth for future possibilities.Work Environment Retaining the experienced nurses by implementing strategies such as: Allowing for more flexibility; Give recognition to the experienced nurses who serve as mentors for the new nurses; Implement appropriate salary and benefit programs. Advance the practice of nursing by creating a partnership environment: Establish appropriate management structures; Ensuring adequate nurse staffing; Offering the nurses independency. Redesign the work to enable the current nurses who are aging to stay active in their direct care rol es. Legislation and RegulationSuggest an increase in the funding of nurse education for improving the capacity and resources for education; Within Medicaid, Medicare and other systems of reimbursement, propose for better identification for the registered nursing services. The National Student Nurses’ Association has a nursing breakthrough project that I think is a great tool that informs juniors and seniors in high school about the nursing opportunities that are available. To attract the attention of these students, they use tools such as live videos and pamphlets.The videos show other high school students who have taken an interest and made a decision to enter into the nursing world. They tell their testimonies about the values of the profession and the reason they chose to go into nursing. The pamphlets explain what nursing is, how to apply to nursing school, what nursing school is actually like, the paths of education to becoming a nurse, the salary, benefits and license r equirements, and then lists other resources where information about nursing is available.These recommendations are going to take the work of many people and organizations coming together and supporting one another. One specific institute cannot implement all that is needed alone. Team work will be become very important. Strategies for retaining the nursing workforce are also needed. Implementing policies that will rebuild the nursing leadership roles will be necessary. Higher satisfaction and better patient care may also be gained by involving the nurses in the design of the staff and overtime policies.Policies that improve the overall hospital or facility work environment are among the most important considerations. Justification The nursing shortage of today is very real and very different from anything in the past. The shortage is evident by the few nurses that are entering the workforce. There is an acute shortage of nurses in certain geographic areas, and there is a shortage of nurses who are properly trained or prepared to work in certain areas to meet the needs of the patients in this changing healthcare environment.The growing realization is that there is inadequate supply of prepared nurses to meet the needs and demands of the population requiring health care attention. This problem will become more serious over the next 20 years if something is not done. The largest number of health care professionals is currently comprised of nurses. Within the nursing profession, statistics indicate that there has been a steady increase in nurses who are entering the profession. The problem still lies in retaining them in the profession. Much work is still needed and will be ongoing now and well into the future.

Effects of Behavioral Interventions on Disruptive Behavior and Affect in Demented Nursing Home Residents Essay

Behavioral interventions might ameliorate them and have a positive effect on residents’ mood (affect). Objectives: This study tested two interventions—an activities of daily living and a psychosocial activity intervention—and a combination of the two to determine their efficacy in reducing disruptive behaviors and improving affect in nursing home residents with dementia. Methods: The study had three treatment groups (activities of daily living, psychosocial activity, and a combination) and two control groups (placebo and no intervention). Nursing assistants hired specifically for this study enacted the interventions under the direction of a master’s prepared gerontological clinical nurse specialist. Nursing assistants employed at the nursing homes recorded the occurrence of disruptive behaviors. Raters analyzed videotapes filmed during the study to determine the interventions’ influence on affect. Results: Findings indicated significantly more positive affect but not reduced disruptive behaviors in treatment groups compared to control groups. Conclusions: The treatments did not specifically address the factors that may have been triggering disruptive behaviors. Interventions much more precisely designed than those employed in this study require development to quell disruptive behaviors. Nontargeted interventions might increase positive affect. Treatments that produce even a brief improvement in affect indicate improved quality of mental health as mandated by federal law. Key Words: affect †¢ Alzheimer’s disease †¢ behavior therapy †¢ dementia †¢ nursing homes Nursing Research July/August 2002 Vol 51, No 4 proximately 1. 3 million older Americans live in nursing homes today (Magaziner et al. , 2000). By 2030, with the aging of the population, the estimated demand for long-term care is expected to more than double (Feder, Komisar, & Niefeld, 2000). Thus, nursing home expenditures could grow from $69 billion in 2000 to $330 billion in 2030 (Shactman & Altman, 2000). About half of new nursing home r esidents have dementia (Magaziner et al. , 2000). The disease has an impact on four major categories of functioning in persons with dementia. These are disruptive behavior (DB), affect, functional status, and cognition (Cohen-Mansfield, 2000). This article will focus on the first two categories. Disruptive behavior has received much more attention than affect has (Lawton, 1997), perhaps for three reasons. First, more than half (53. 7%) of nursing home residents display DB with aggression (34. 3%) occurring the most often (Jackson, Spector, & Rabins, 1997). Second, DB threatens the wellbeing of the resident and others in the environment. Consequences include: (a) stress experienced by other resiCornelia K. Beck, PhD, RN, is Professor, Colleges of Medicine and Nursing, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences. Theresa S. Vogelpohl, MNSc, RN, is President, ElderCare Decisions. Joyce H. Rasin, PhD, RN, is Associate Professor, School of Nursing, University of North Carolina. Johannah Topps Uriri, PhD(c), RN, is Clinical Assistant Professor, College of Nursing, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences. Patricia O’Sullivan, EdD, is Associate Professor, Office of Educational Development, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences. Robert Walls, PhD, is Professor Emeritus, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences. Regina Phillips, PhD(c), RN, is Assistant Professor, Nursing Villa Julie College. Beverly Baldwin, PhD, RN, deceased, was Sonya Ziporkin Gershowitz Professor of Gerontological Nursing, University of Maryland. A Note to Readers: This article employs a number of acronyms. Refer to Table 1 to facilitate reading. 219 220 Effects of Behavioral Interventions Nursing Research July/August 2002 Vol 51, No 4 TABLE 1. Acronyms Term Activities of daily living Analysis of variance Apparent affect rating scale Arkansas Combined Disruptive behavior(s) Disruptive behavior scale Licensed practical nurse(s) Maryland Mini mental status exam Negative visual analogue scale Nursing home nursing assistant(s) Observable displays of affect scale Positive visual analogue scale Project nursing assistant(s) Psychosocial activity Research assistant(s) Acronym ADL ANOVA AARS AR CB DB DBS LPN MD MMSE NVAS NHNA ODAS PVAS PNA PSA RA decreases in targeted behaviors (Gerdner, 2000; Matteson, Linton, Cleary, Barnes, & Lichtenstein, 1997). However, others reported nonsignificant reductions (Teri et al. , 2000), no change (Churchill, Safaoui, McCabe, & Baun, 1999), or increased behavioral symptoms (Mather, Nemecek, & Oliver, 1997). These studies used nursing home staffs to collect data, had sample sizes below 100, and measured an array of DB with different assessments. Only in the last decade have researchers investigated affect. Compared to studies to reduce DB, far fewer studies have measured interventions using affect as an outcome measure. Studies reported positive outcomes on affect from such interventions as simulated presence therapy (Camberg et al. , 1999), Montessori-based activities (Orsulic-Jeras, Judge, & Camp, 2000), advanced practice nursing (Ryden et al. , 2000), music (Ragneskog, Brane, Karlsson, & Kihlgren, 1996), rocking chair therapy (Watson, Wells, & Cox, 1998), and pet therapy (Churchill et al. , 1999). The studies on affect used global measures that relied on observer interpretation, which could have compromised objectivity. Theoretical Bases A number of conceptual frameworks have guided intervention research on persons with cognitive impairment (Garand et al. , 2000). The theoretical basis for this study was that individuals have basic psychosocial needs, which, when met, reduce DB (Algase et al. , 1996) (Table 2). The interventions, one focusing on activities of daily living (ADL) and the other focusing on psychosocial activity (PSA), and a combination (CB) of the two, were developed to meet most of the basic psychosocial needs that Boettcher (1983) identified. These included territoriality, privacy and freedom from unwanted physical intrusion; communication, opportunity to talk openly with others; self-esteem, respect from others and freedom from insult or shaming; safety and security, protection from harm; autonomy, control over one’s life; personal identity, access to personal items and identifying material, and cognitive understanding, awareness of surroundings and mental clarity. The section on study groups specifies which interventions were designed to meet which needs. Positive affect usually accompanies interventions that meet basic psychosocial needs (Lawton, Van Haitsma, & Klapper, 1996). Several researchers and clinicians have suggested that displays of affect may offer a window for revealing demented residents’ needs, preferences, aversions (Lawton, 1994), and responses to daily events (Hurley, Volicer, Mahoney, & Volicer, 1993). The study reported here dents and staff; (b) increased falls and injury; (c) economic costs, such as property damage and staff burn-out, absenteeism, and turnover; (d) emotional deprivation such as social isolation of the resident; and (e) use of physical or pharmacologic restraints (Beck, Heithoff, et al. 1997). Third, before the Nursing Home Reform Act (Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act, 1987), nursing homes routinely applied physical and chemical restraints to control DB with only moderate results (Garand, Buckwalter, & Hall, 2000). However, the Act mandated that residents have the right to be free from restraints imposed for discipline or convenience and not required to treat the residents’ medical symptoms. Thus, research ers have tested a wide range of behavioral interventions to reduce DB and replace restraints. The Act (1987) also stipulated that all residents are entitled to an environment that improves or maintains the quality of mental health. Interventions that promote positive mood or affect fulfill this entitlement. Therefore, this article will report the effects of an intervention to increase functional status in activities of daily living (Beck, Heacock, et al. , 1997), a psychosocial intervention, and a combination of both on reducing DB and improving affect of nursing home residents with dementia. TABLE 2. Basic Psychosocial Needs Relevant Literature Literature suggests that behavioral interventions offer promise in managing DB. A wide range of modalities and approaches have been tested: (a) sensory stimulation (e. g. , music); (b) physical environment changes (e. g. , walled garden); (c) psychosocial measures (e. g. , pet therapy); and (d) multimodal strategies. Many studies found significant Territoriality Communication Self-esteem Safety and security Autonomy Personal identity Cognitive understanding Nursing Research July/August 2002 Vol 51, No 4 Effects of Behavioral Interventions 221 adopted the inference by Lawton et al. (1996) that frequent displays of positive affect when basic psychosocial needs are met might indicate improved emotional wellbeing. is leg continually and without apparent reason needs redirection. This intervention lasted 45–60 minutes a day during various ADL. PSA Intervention. A PNA also conducted the PSA intervention, which involved 25 standardized modules designed to meet the psychosocial needs for communication, selfesteem, safety and security, personal identity, and cogni tive understanding through engagement in meaningful activity while respecting the individual’s unique cognitive and physical abilities (Baldwin, Magsamen, Griggs, & Kent, 1992). The intervention was chosen because it: (a) provided a systematic plan for the PNA to address some of the participant’s basic psychosocial needs; and (b) represented clinical interventions that many long-term care facilities routinely used, but had not been formalized into a research protocol or systematically tested. Each module contained five psychosocial areas of content (expression of feelings, expression of thoughts, memory/recall, recreation, and education) and stimulated five sensory modalities (verbal, visual, auditory, tactile, and gustatory/olfactory). For instance, Activity Module I involved life review, communicating ideas visually (identifying and making drawings), clapping to different rhythms, massaging one’s face, and eating a snack. Initially, many participants tolerated less than 15 minutes of the activity but eventually habituated and participated 30 minutes. CB Intervention. This treatment consisted of both the ADL and PSA interventions and lasted 90 minutes daily. Placebo Control. This involved a one-to-one interaction between the participant and PNA. It controlled for the effect of the personal attention that the PNA provided to the three treatment groups. The PNA asked the participant to choose the activity, such as holding a conversation or manicuring nails. It lasted 30 minutes a day. No Intervention Control. This condition consisted of routine care from a NHNA with no scheduled contact between participants and the PNA. Instruments: Disruptive Behavior Scale. The 45-item disruptive behavior scale (DBS), designed to construct scores based on the occurrence and severity of behaviors, assessed the effect of the interventions on DB (Beck, Heithoff et al. 1997). Gerontological experts (n 29) established content validity, and interrater reliability tests yielded an interclass correlation coefficient of . 80 (p . 001). Geropsychiatricnursing experts weighted the behaviors using a Q-sort to improve the scale’s capacity to predict perceived patient disruptiveness. Factor analysis identified four factors (Beck et al. , 1998). Two corresponded to two—physically aggressive and physically nonaggressive—of the three categories from the factor analysis of the Cohen-Mansfield Agitation Inventory (Cohen-Mansfield, Marx, & Rosenthal, 1989). The third category of the Inventory was verbally agitated; in contrast, the factor analysis of the DBS produced a third and fourth category—vocally agitated and vocally aggressive. To obtain a score for the DBS, a trained individual completed a DBS form for every hour of a shift by check- Methods The primary aim was to conduct a randomized trial of the ADL and PSA interventions individually and in combination (CB) for their effect on DB and affect on a large sample of nursing home residents. The experimental design consisted of three treatment groups (ADL, PSA, and Combined) and two control groups (placebo and no intervention). Individual residents were assigned to one of the five groups at each of seven sites in Arkansas and Maryland, which controlled for site differences. To demonstrate the practicability of the interventions and assure adherence to the treatment protocols, certified nursing assistants were hired and trained as project nursing assistants (PNA). They implemented the interventions Monday–Friday for 12 weeks. Afterward, one-month and two-month follow-up periods occurred. Nursing assistants employed by the nursing homes (NHNA) recorded DB. To measure affect, raters were hired for the study to analyze videotapes filmed during intervention. Research Subjects: The sample initially consisted of 179 participants. The study design allowed for the detection of an improvement in DB scores on the Disruptive Behavior Scale (DBS) (Beck, Heithoff et al. , 1997) across time of at least 1. 6 units with a power of 80%. This power calculation assumed that the repeated measures would be correlated with one another at 0. 60. Inclusion criteria were age 65; a dementia diagnosis; a Mini Mental Status Exam (MMSE) (Folstein, Folstein, & McHugh, 1975) score of 20; and a report of DB in the previous two weeks. To form a more homogeneous group for generalizing findings, exclusion criteria were a physical disability that severely limited ADL; a psychiatric diagnosis; and a progressive or recurring medical, metabolic, or neurological condition that might interfere with cognition or behavior. Study Groups: ADL Intervention. A PNA used the ADL intervention during bathing, grooming, dressing, and the noon meal based on successful protocols that improved functional status in dressing (Beck, Heacock et al. , 1997). It attempted to meet residents’ psychosocial needs for territoriality, communication, autonomy, and self-esteem to promote their sense of safety and security. The intervention also tried to respect participants’ cognitive and physical abilities by prescribing three types of strategies specific to the individual participant. First, strategies to complete an ADL address specific cognitive deficits. For example, the person with ideomotor apraxia needs touch or physical guidance to start movements. Second, standard strategies are behaviors and communication techniques that work for almost everyone with dementia. For example, the caregiver gives a series of one-step commands to guide the resident to put on her shoe. Third, problem-oriented strategies address particular disabilities such as fine motor impairment, physical limitations, or perseveration. For example, a subject who rubs his hand back and forth on 222 Effects of Behavioral Interventions ing the behaviors that occurred. The score for a behavior was the frequency (0–8) times the weight. The item scores were summed to obtain each of the four subscale scores. Mini Mental Status Exam. The Mini Mental Status Exam (MMSE) (Folstein et al. 1975) provided a global evaluation of participants’ cognitive statuses for screening subjects for the study. Test-retest reliability of the MMSE is . 82 or better (Folstein et al. ). Cognition is assessed in seven areas, and scores lower than 24 out of 30 indicate dementia. Nursing Research July/August 2002 Vol 51, No 4 Observable Displays of Affect Scale. The Observable Displays of Affect Scale (ODAS) (Vogelpohl & Beck, 1997), designed to rate videotaped data, contains 41 behaviors categorized into six subscales of positive and negative facial displays, vocalizations, and body movement/posture. Raters indicate presence/absence of each behavior during five 2-minute intervals from a 10minute videotape. Scores range from 0–5 for each item. The range of scores for each scale is: facial positive (0–20), Aggression during bathing facial negative (0–20), vocal positive (0–45), vocal negative (0–50), body could stem from physical positive (0–30), and body negative discomfort or rough (0–40). Interrater reliabilities (Kappa handling coefficients) for the ODAS range from . 68–1. 00, and intrarater reliability is . 97–1. 00. Ten gerontological nursing experts established content validity (Vogelpohl & Beck). Apparent Affect Rating Scale. The Apparent Affect Rating Scale (AARS) (Lawton et al. , 1996) is designed for direct observation of persons with dementia and contains six affective states: pleasure, anger, anxiety/fear, sadness, interest, and contentment. (In later work, Lawton, Van Haitsma, Perkinson, & Ruckdeschel [1999] deleted contentment). Each item has a noninclusive list of behaviors that might signal the presence of the affect from which observers infer the affect. The observer assigns a score of 1 to 5 to measure the duration of the behavior. Visual Analogue Scales. The Positive Visual Analogue Scale (PVAS) and Negative Visual Analogue Scale (NVAS) (Lee & Kieckhefer, 1989; Wewers & Lowe, 1990) are two 10centimeter lines on separate pages for rating positive and negative affect. The PVAS has end anchors of â€Å"no positive affect† and â€Å"a great deal of positive affect. † The NVAS has end anchors of â€Å"no negative affect† and â€Å"a great deal of negative affect. † Scores range from 0 to 100. Procedure: The study consisted of six phases: (a) preliminary activities, (b) a three-week normalization/desensitization period, (c) a 12-week intervention period, (d) a onemonth follow-up period, (e) a two-month follow-up period, and f) a videotape analysis. Preliminary Activities. The institutional review boards at the University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences and the Univer- sity of Maryland approved the research. Each nursing home identified residents with dementia and sent letters informing persons responsible for the residents that researchers would be contacting them. Responsible persons could return a signed form if they did not want to participate. Willing responsible persons received a telephone call explaining the study followed by a mailed written description along with two consent forms. Those willing kept one consent form for their records and signed and mailed back the other. Screening involved a review of the residents’ charts, recording their diagnoses, and interviews with the staff to find evidence of DB during the previous two weeks. Each resident took the MMSE to meet inclusion criteria. Within each home, female residents who passed these screens were randomized to one of the five groups by a drawing, but males were assigned to the five groups to ensure even distribution of their small number. Simultaneously, research staff members were hired and trained. Normalization/Desensitization. For the next three weeks, each PNA accompanied a NHNA to learn the routines of the facility but did not help care for potential study participants. A videotape technician placed a camera that was not running in the dining and shower rooms to desensitize residents and staff to its presence. In addition, nursing home staffs participated in two-hour training sessions on the DBS. Throughout the study, a gerontological clinical nurse specialist trained any new NHNA and retrained if behaviors reported on the DBS differed from those she observed during randomized checks. Intervention. During the 12-week intervention period, the first three weeks were considered baseline and the last two weeks postintervention. The PNA administered the treatment/s or placebo five days a week. Every day, they asked participants to give their assent and espected any dissents. During weeks 11–12 (postintervention), the PNA prepared the participants for their departure by telling them that they were leaving soon. To facilitate data collection, a separate form of the DBS for each of the three eight-hour daily shifts was developed. Eight one-hour blocks accompanied each item of the scale. The NHNA placed a check mark in the block that corresponded to the hour when the NHNA observed the behavi or. The NHNA completed the DBS on all participants during or at the end of a shift. In addition, a technician videotaped participants in the treatment and placebo groups every other week during an interaction with the PNA and no intervention group monthly during an ADL. The technician monitored positioning and operation of the camera from outside the room or behind a curtain to respect the participants’ privacy. One-Month and Two-Month Follow-up. One month and two months after the research team left the nursing home, Nursing Research July/August 2002 Vol 51, No 4 Effects of Behavioral Interventions 223 esearch assistants (RA) retrained nursing home staffs on the DBS. The NHNA then collected DB data on their shifts Monday–Friday for one week. tervention, week 16 as one-month follow-up, and week 20 as two-month follow-up. Participants with fewer than six observations at any time period were omitted. For each period, a total DBS score represented an averVideotape Analysis. The videotapes ranged in length from age of the participant’s data for the t hree shifts of each day less than five minutes to 40 minutes, depending on the across the five days of the observation week. Therefore, activity and the participant’s willingness to cooperate with total DBS scores were obtained for baseline (M of weeks the treatment (baseline and control participants’ tapes 1–3), intervention (M of weeks 4–10), postintervention (M tended to be shorter). To standardize the opportunity for of weeks 11–12), first follow-up (M of week 16), and secbehaviors to occur, an editor took 10-minute segments ond follow-up (M of week 20). The same procedure from the middle of baseline and final treatment eek tapes yielded subscale scores for physically aggressive, physically and randomized them onto videotapes for rating. Because nonaggressive, vocally aggressive, and vocally agitated videotaping occurred to ensure appropriate implementabehaviors for each of the five time periods. tion of interventions, the treatment groups had more A repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) usable videotapes than the control groups did. consisted of two between- subjects and one within-subjects A master’s prepared gerontological factors. The between-subjects factors nurse specialist intensively trained six were intervention group and state (AR raters on the Observer III Software or MD) to account for regional differSystem (Noldus Information Technolences in scoring DB, and the withinogy, 1993) for direct data entry and subjects factor represented DBS scores the affect rating scales. The raters for the five different time periods. Each reached . 80 agreement with the speanalysis allowed for testing by intervencialist on practice tapes before they tion group, time period, and state. The Screaming may started rating the study videotapes. nalysis of the interaction effect of She monitored reliability for each tape intervention group by time period express pain or monthly, retrained as needed, and rantested the hypothesis that the intervenself-stimulation domized the sequence of rating the tions would decrease DB across time in scales. The raters entered the ODAS treatment conditions as compared to and AARS data directly into a comcontrol conditions. The analysis was puter using the Observer. The system repeated five times, once for each suballowed raters to watch videos repeatscale of the DBS and once for the total edly in actual time and slow action to score. Level of significance was set at document behaviors objectively and 0. 05. The researchers believed that the precisely. The raters indicated their small group sizes justified the liberal perception of the participants’ positive and negative level of significance. For the videotape analysis, analyses of affect by placing a vertical mark at some point between covariance occurred for the 14 variables observed from the the two end anchors of the PVAS and NVAS. They videotapes during intervention. The baseline score served marked neutral affect as negative. s a covariate for the final score. While a multivariate analysis would have been desirable, it would have had Intervention Integrity: The PNA and video camera techniinsufficient power with this number of variables and subcian underwent two weeks of intensive training on general jects. The 14 univariate analyses do inflate the Type I error aging topics, stress management, information on dementia, rate. and confidentiality/privacy issues. Training also involved instruction on the study interventions, DBS, and research Results protocols. Of the 179 initial participants, 36 did not finish; the greatA gerontological clinical nurse specialist viewed treatest attrition occurred in the no intervention control group. ment and placebo videotapes biweekly in a private office to Attrition resulted from death (39%), withdrawal of fammonitor PNA compliance with research protocols, provide ily’s consent or at nursing home staff’s request (26%), discorrective feedback to PNA, and help PNA recognize and charge (18%), and change in health status/medications meet participants’ needs as they changed during treatment. hat did not meet inclusion criteria (17%). This left 143 The possibility for contamination appeared to be low participants: 29 in the ADL, 30 in PSA, 30 in CB, 30 in the because NHNA were unlikely to change their care practices placebo, and 24 in the no intervention, but 16 with incomand had little opportunity to observe PNA. Further, NHNA plete data were dropped. Table 3 gives the demographic were b linded to the hypothesis of the study, the nature of the statistics for the 127 participants with complete data. No interventions, and the participants’ group assignments, statistically significant demographic differences emerged although they probably could identify the no intervention among the five groups. In short, this sample primarily conparticipants. sisted of elderly, white females with severe cognitive impairment. Analysis: Reviewers checked for completeness of all data. For the videotape analysis, the final number was 84 The researchers designated intervention weeks 1–3 as baseparticipants with 168 videotape segments. Most were line, weeks 4–10 as intervention, weeks 11–12 as postin- 224 Effects of Behavioral Interventions Nursing Research July/August 2002 Vol 51, No 4 TABLE 3. Description of the Sample by Intervention Group No Intervention 19 89. 5 78. 9 84. 2 86. 47 (6. 37) 11. 47 (6. 43) ADL Number in group Percent female Percent white Percent widowed Mean age (SD) M MMSE (SD) 28 78. 6 82. 1 64. 3 82. 29 (8. 40) 11. 44 (7. 69) PSA 29 82. 1 85. 7 66. 7 82. 18 (7. 64) 10. 65 (6. 76) CB 22 81. 8 77. 3 77. 3 82. 82 (9. 81) 7. 91 (5. 41) Placebo 29 75. 9 86. 2 75. 9 86. 45 (6. 92) 11. 11 (6. 39) Total 127 81. 0 82. 5 72. 8 83. 64 (7. 97) 10. 55 (6. 64) Note. ADL = activities of daily living; PSA = psychosocial activity; CB = combination. emale (79%) and widowed (69%) with a mean age of 83 (SD 7. 44). Participants had a mean score of 10 (SD 6. 34) on the MMSE, indicating moderate to severe cognitive impairment. Table 4 displays the means and standard deviations for the DBS overall and the four subscales across the five time periods for the five groups. No significant differences emerged for the interventi on-by-time interaction for any of the dependent variables. Thus, the results failed to support the hypothesis that the interventions would decrease DB across time in treatment groups as compared to control groups (statistical analysis tables on Website at: http://sonweb. nc. edu/nursing-research-editor). However, the main effect of state was significant in three analyses. Arkansas recorded significantly more behaviors than Maryland did for the dependent variables of physically nonaggressive (p . 001), vocally agitated (p . 001), and overall DBS (p . 002). Further, the main effect of time was significant for overall DBS (p . 002) and the four subscales of physically aggressive (p . 001), physically nonaggressive (p . 027), vocally aggressive (p . 021), and vocally agitated behaviors (p . 008). The significance resulted from increased DB after the PNA had left the home (generally from intervention or postintervention to first follow-up). For the videotape analysis, the hypothesis stated that treatment groups, compared with control groups, would display more indicators of positive affect and fewer indicators of negative affect following behavioral interventions. In general, neither the positive nor the negative affect scores were particularly high, indicating that this sample had relatively flat affect. Results from the analysis of covariance tests supported increased positive affect but not decreased negative affect. Compared to the control groups, the treatment groups had significantly more positive facial expressions (p . 001) and positive body posture/movements (p . 001), but not more positive verbal displays on the ODAS. The treatment groups displayed significantly more contentment (p . 037) and interest (p . 028) than the control groups did on the AARS. For the negative affects on the AARS, the treatment groups had a shorter duration of sad behaviors (p . 007) than the control groups did. Comparison of VAS scales likewise showed that the treatment groups displayed more positive affect (p . 012). Discussion In contrast to other studies (e. . , Hoeffer et al. , 1997; Kim & Buschmann. , 1999; Whall et al. , 1997), this study found no treatment effect on DB. The interventions were a synthesis of approaches believed to globally address â€Å"triggers† of DB and meet psychosocial needs (Boettcher, 1983). They did not address the specific factors that might have been triggering the particula r behavior (Algase et al. , 1996). Such triggers include under/over stimulation, unfamiliar or impersonal caregivers, and particular individual unmet psychosocial needs. For example, aggression during bathing could stem from physical discomfort or rough handling (Whall et al. 1997). Interventions much more individually designed require development. Increasing DB across all groups was reflected in the DBS scores at 1-month follow-up. Two factors may explain this increase. First, the PNA had warned participants that they would be leaving. Second, the ADL and CB participants no longer received care from the familiar PNA, and PSA, CB, and placebo participants no longer had a daily activity or visit. The increased stress and time constraints for NHNA as they resumed caregiving of the ADL and CB participants may explain the heightened DB in the control groups. Such changes may trigger increased behavioral symptoms in persons with dementia (Hall, Gerdner, Zwygart-Stauffacher, & Buckwalter, 1995). Two measurement issues may have affected outcomes. First, observers view behaviors differently (Whall et al. , 1997) and come to expect particular behaviors from certain residents (Hillman, Skoloda, Zander, & Stricker, 1999). If the NHNA were accustomed to a participant’s DB pattern, such as persistent screaming, they may have overlooked decreases in that behavior. Initial training and retraining of raters occurred as needed; however, some Nursing Research July/August 2002 Vol 51, No 4 Effects of Behavioral Interventions 225 TABLE 4. Weighted Scores for Disruptive Behavior by Intervention Group and Time Period No Intervention (n = 19) Mean (SD) 408. 71 (427. 24) 303. 69 (408. 44) 281. 97 (410. 85) 418. 31 (630. 58) 292. 85 (405. 15) 114. 66 (202. 89) 90. 85 (182. 70) 77. 98 (173. 15) 130. 92 (257. 12) 128. 20 (195. 67) 191. 97 (157. 75) 117. 11 (112. 30) 118. 23 (137. 08) 154. 46 (225. 05) 100. 45 (153. 30) 55. 16 (74. 70) 42. 89 (54. 54) 33. 26 (47. 06) 64. 72 (77. 89) 28. 09 (37. 02) (continues) DB Category Time Period DBS total Baseline ADL (n = 28) Mean (SD) 172. 51 (191. 47) 182. 45 (181. 3) 164. 56 (154. 95) 207. 22 (205. 58) 190. 70 (291. 06) 20. 67 (30. 52) 32. 59 (51. 29) 15. 02 (26. 10) 44. 18 (100. 62) 21. 45 (36. 47) 95. 50 (105. 28) 87. 58 (87. 58) 85. 04 (89. 60) 88. 81 (85. 69) 148. 75 (187. 28) 22. 85 (32. 10) 28. 37 (32. 50) 21. 15 (26. 54) 30. 72 (48. 95) 18. 28 (24. 55) PSA (n = 29) Mean (SD) 348. 02 (467. 50) 306. 81 (393. 03) 303. 24 (367. 54) 373. 17 (533. 05) 300. 20 (366. 42) 85. 87 (199. 01) 83. 94 (167. 53) 82. 82 (166. 93) 113. 49 (235. 71) 81. 30 (151. 85) 162. 41 (206. 65) 130. 82 (142. 72) 133. 92 (145. 97) 141. 47 (188. 99) 164. 92 (223. 63) 49. 64 (93. 15) 43. 80 (64. 6) 37. 90 (53. 43) 54. 47 (90. 33) 40. 26 (45. 26) CB (n = 22) Mean (SD) 287. 66 (373. 73) 300. 84 (379. 33) 286. 21 (365. 78) 374. 10 (510. 10) 312. 83 (433. 18) 68. 84 (126. 18) 67. 14 (137. 79) 61. 04 (127. 78) 92. 68 (205. 52) 60. 40 (131. 54) 136. 67 (189. 03) 124. 64 (164. 49) 125. 99 (157. 78) 159. 97 (202. 75) 146. 53 (201. 83) 34. 49 (55. 91) 40. 73 (52. 60) 31. 18 (33. 85) 36. 95 (42. 70) 32. 82 (51. 32) Placebo (n = 29) Mean (SD) 325. 96 (337. 14) 337. 60 (328. 94) 336. 80 (366. 55) 389. 92 (434. 43) 319. 15 (384. 59) 49. 26 (90. 24) 62. 10 (112. 71) 59. 67 (106. 37) 76. 79 (165. 45) 48. 25 (101. 4) 167. 01 (177. 80) 164. 62 (161. 48) 175. 36 (189. 80) 201. 68 (212. 06) 87. 67 (127. 38) 47. 20 (79. 70) 39. 55 (57. 74) 32. 69 (55. 77) 29 . 30 (47. 60) 30. 18 (52. 85) Intervention Postintervention 1 month follow-up 2 month follow-up Physically aggressive Baseline Intervention Postintervention 1 month follow-up 2 month follow-up Physically nonaggressive Baseline Intervention Postintervention 1 month follow-up 2 month follow-up Vocally aggressive Baseline Intervention Postintervention 1 month follow-up 2 month follow-up 226 Effects of Behavioral Interventions Nursing Research July/August 2002 Vol 51, No 4 TABLE 4. Weighted Scores for Disruptive Behavior by Intervention Group and Time Period (Continued) NoIntervention (n = 19) Mean (SD) 47. 65 (97. 22) 68. 32 (103. 13) 68. 01 (116. 62) 84. 50 (112. 48) 73. 07 (117. 12) DB Category Time Period Vocally agitated Baseline ADL (n = 28) Mean (SD) 33. 49 (84. 39) 33. 91 (62. 52) 43. 17 (72. 10) 43. 48 (64. 39) 50. 53 (117. 95) PSA (n = 29) Mean (SD) 46. 92 (98. 70) 52. 84 (96. 03) 52. 50 (90. 78) 68. 22 (98. 89) 48. 89 (92. 33) CB (n = 22) Mean (SD) 62. 49 (98. 97) 70. 43 (110. 85) 69. 08 (107. 29) 82. 14 (118. 97) 75. 80 (129. 67) Placebo (n = 29) Mean (SD) 50. 0 (92. 05) 48. 25 (81. 63) 48. 59 (72. 20) 63. 74 (95. 30) 54. 11 (80. 61) Intervention Postintervention 1 month follow-up 2 month follow-up Note. Scores were created by assigning each behavior with a severity weight prior to summing and then averaging across day and then week(s). DBS = disruptive behaviors; ADL = activities of daily living intervention; PSA = psychocial activity inte rvention; CB = combination of the two interventions. NHNA appeared to continue to consider participants’ behaviors, such as repetitive questioning, to be personality characteristics or attention-seeking efforts rather than DB. Thus, they may have under-reported behaviors. Further, staff may prefer withdrawn behaviors, such as isolating self and muteness (Camberg et al. , 1999), and view them as nonproblematic. Second, categorizing a behavior as disruptive without understanding its meaning to the person with dementia may be conceptually flawed. For example, screaming may express pain or self-stimulation. Two design features may explain differences between the findings of this study and others. First, this study had both placebo and no intervention control conditions. Just a few other studies randomized subjects to treatment or control groups or included two control groups (e. g. , Camberg et al. , 1999). In most studies, control conditions preceded or followed treatment conditions (e. g. , Clark, Lipe, & Bilbrey, 1998). In both designs, subjects served as their own controls, which limits examination of simultaneous intra- and extra-personal events that might affect DB frequency. Second, many control groups came from separate units or different nursing homes (e. g. , Matteson et al. , 1997), which makes it difficult to control for differences in environment, staff relationships, and personalities. This study occurred at seven sites in two different geographical areas, but at each site, the randomization of female participants distributed the groups across all nursing units to control for environmental and staff characteristics. Acknowledged limitations include the following. First, in spite of the large overall sample, the group sizes were small (range 19–30) with the greatest loss in the no inter- vention group. Larger groups might have provided more definitive findings on the relationship between behavioral interventions and DB frequency as Rovner et al. (1996) did (treatment group 42; control group 39). Second, NHNA served as data collectors because using independent observers would have been cost-prohibitive. These results suggest that future intervention research should consider the individual characteristics of the person with dementia (Maslow, 1996) and the triggers of the behavior (Algase et al. , 1996). Studies that have individualized interventions have demonstrated decreased DB (Gerdner, 2000; Hoeffer et al. , 1997). Researchers need to continue to refine methods for identifying what works for whom (Forbes, 1998) to minimize the prevalent trial-anderror approach to DB management.